Methods and systems for polarization mode dispersion compensation

ABSTRACT

Methods and systems for higher-order PMD compensation are implemented by developing an effective mathematical model and applying economical design techniques to the model. By assuming a constant precession rate for a narrow band of frequencies in an optical signal, a simplified model of a higher-order PMD compensator can be derived. The model can be used produce an economical compensator by making multiple uses of selected optical components.

This nonprovisional application is a continuation and claims the benefitof U.S. application Ser. No. 11/240,066, filed on Sep. 30, 2005 now U.S.Pat. No. 7,203,423, which is a continuation and claims the benefit ofU.S. application Ser. No. 10/657,873, filed on Sep. 9, 2003, now U.S.Pat. No. 6,980,744, which is a continuation of and claims priority toU.S. application Ser. No. 09/650,289, entitled “METHODS AND SYSTEMS FORPOLARIZATION MODE DISPERSION COMPENSATION,” filed on Aug. 29, 2000, nowU.S. Pat. No. 6,674,972 which claims the benefit of the U.S. ProvisionalApplication No. 60/151,959, entitled “A SIMPLE COMPENSATOR FORHIGH-ORDER POLARIZATION MODE DISPERSION EFFECTS,” filed on Sep. 1, 1999.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of Invention

The invention relates to methods and systems that compensate forpolarization mode dispersion.

2. Description of Related Art

As data rates transmitted over optical conduits such as long single-modeoptical fibers increase, the effects of polarization mode dispersion(PMD) become increasingly important. PMD is a form of signal distortionand can be caused by subtle physical defects in an optical fiber givingrise to birefringence of the optical fibers. The effects of thisphenomenon are often characterized into first-order PMD effects andhigher-order PMD effects.

First-order PMD refers to the time dispersal of various components of anoptical signal that is essentially constant for all frequencies in anarrow band of optical frequencies. First-order PMD is equivalent tosplitting a transmitted optical signal into two orthogonal polarizationcomponents along a birefringence axis of an optical fiber, and delayingone of the polarization components relative to the other, to producemultiple images of the optical signal.

Second-order, or higher-order PMD, refers to temporal dispersal that,unlike first-order PMD, varies a function of frequency and can resultwhen the axis of birefringence varies along the length of an opticalfiber. While the use of a PMD compensator can mitigate the deleteriouseffects of PMD, the vast majority of PMD compensators are designed forfirst-order PMD only. Accordingly, there is a need for new technology toprovide better PMD compensation.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention provides methods and systems for PMD compensation using aneconomical number of components. The technique includes passing anoptical signal through a frequency-dependent polarization rotator, thenthrough a first-order PMD compensation device, then again through afrequency-dependent polarization rotator, which has a fixed relation tothe first frequency-dependent polarization mentioned above. Thiscombination of elements allows compensation for certain high-orderfeatures of PMD. Further economy can be gained by applying economicaloptical design concepts such as selectively reusing common opticalcomponents in the compensation model.

Other features and advantages of the present invention will be describedbelow or will become apparent from the accompanying drawings and fromthe detailed description which follows.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The invention is described in detail with regard to the followingfigures, wherein like numbers reference like elements, and wherein:

FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an exemplary optical transmission system;

FIG. 2 is an exemplary representation of changing polarization state ofa polarized optical signal transmitted through an optical conduit;

FIG. 3 is an exemplary diagram of an imperfect optical conduit that cangive rise to PMD;

FIG. 4 is a block diagram of an exemplary PMD compensator;

FIG. 5 is a flowchart outlining an exemplary operation of a method forcompensating for PMD; and

FIG. 6 is a flowchart outlining an exemplary operation for adjusting thePMD compensator of FIG. 4.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

As data rates over optical conduits such as single-mode optical fibersincrease, the effects of polarization mode dispersion (PMD) becomeincreasingly important. While the use of PMD compensators can mitigatethe effects of PMD, the vast majority of PMD compensators only addressfirst-order PMD.

The effect of first-order PMD is equivalent to splitting a transmittedoptical signal into two orthogonal polarization components, along abirefringence axis of an optical fiber, and delaying one of thepolarization components relative to the other, to produce multipleimages of the transmitted optical signal. For polarized optical sources,as is usually the case, the two polarization components may differ intheir magnitude, but generally have identical shape. An optical fiberwhose axis of birefringence does not change throughout its lengthdisplays only first-order PMD effects.

However, when the axis of birefringence varies along the length of theoptical fiber, higher-order PMD effects can appear A fiber whichsupports higher orders of PMD can be pictured as a birefringent elementwhere the birefringence axes are dependent upon optical frequency.

Unfortunately, higher-order PMD compensators typically require a largenumber of controls to address the various frequency-dependentconsiderations of PMD. However, by approximating the effect ofhigh-order PMD as a pure constant rate precession, in Stokes space, ofthe principal axes, a PMD compensator can be designed that compensatesfor both first- and higher-order dispersion based on the simplifiedmodel. Thus, economical compensators can be designed.

FIG. 1 shows an exemplary block diagram of an optical transmissionsystem 100. The system 100 includes an optical source 110, an opticalcompensator 120 and an optical receiver 130. The optical compensator 120can receive an optical signal from the optical source 110 via conduit112, process the optical signal to compensate for polarization modedispersion (PMD), then provide the compensated optical signal to theoptical receiver 130 via conduit 122.

The optical source 110 and the optical receiver 130 can be any one of anumber of different types of optical sources and receiving devices, suchas a computer or a storage device with optical transceivers and thelike. It should be appreciated that the optical source 110 and receiver130 can be any of a number of different types of sources and receivers,or any combination of software and hardware of capable ofgenerating/receiving, relaying or recalling from storage any informationcapable of being transmitted/received in an optical signal withoutdeparting from the spirit and scope of the present invention.

The optical conduits 112 and 122 can be any known or later developeddevice or system for connecting the optical source 110 to the opticalcompensator 120 or the optical receiver 130 to the optical compensator120. Such devices include any number of optical conduits capable ofpropagating an optical signal, such as fiber optic cables including asingle-mode fiber optic cables and the like. However, it should beappreciated that the optical conduits 112 and 122 can be any opticalconduit capability of propagating an optical signal without departingfrom the spirit and scope of the present invention.

FIG. 2 is an exemplary representation of an elliptical, or time-varying,polarized optical signal 200 propagating through an optical conduitalong a distance axis 230. The exemplary conduit has a fixed linearbirefringence due to which the vertical axis 210 and the horizontal axis220 of the signal 200 acquire a phase difference as the optical signal200 propagates along the distance axis 230. Due to this acquired phasedifference, the polarization state of the optical signal 200 changes asit propagates along the distance axis 230, as shown in FIG. 2.

The exemplary optical signal 200 has a first vertical polarization state240. As the optical signal 200 propagates along the distance axis 230,the polarization of the optical signal 200 changes to an ellipticalpolarization state 242 with its major axis aligned along the verticalaxis 210. As the optical signal 200 further propagates along axis 230,the signal's polarization state changes to a circular polarization state244. Next, the polarization of the optical signal 200 changes to anotherelliptical phase 246, but with its major axis aligned along thehorizontal axis 220. Then, as the optical signal 200 continues topropagate along the distance axis 230, the polarization changes to apurely horizontal phase 248.

As the optical signal 200 continues to propagate along the distance axis230, the polarization changes again to an elliptical phase 250 with itsmajor axis aligned along the horizontal axis 220, then to a circularpolarization state 252, then again to an elliptical polarization state254 with its major axis aligned along the vertical axis 210, then to apurely vertical polarization state 256. The polarization state continuesto oscillate between polarization states in this fashion as it continuesto propagate along the distance axis 230.

The rate at which the polarization state oscillates varies as a functionof a variety of factors, including the frequency of an optical signal.Generally, the shorter the wavelength of light, the greater theoscillation rate. For an optical signal having a variety of frequencycomponents propagating along an optical conduit, the oscillation ratefor each frequency can vary and, thus, the instantaneous polarizationstate of the different frequencies can differ at any point along theconduit.

FIG. 3 shows a cross section of a non-circular optical conduit 300capable of propagating an optical signal. The exemplary optical conduit300 has a fast-axis 310 and a slow-axis 320 that are orthogonal to thedirection of propagation of the optical signal. The two axes 310 and 320define a principle plane having the property that light of a givenwavelength will propagate faster as its polarization mode aligns withthe fast-axis 310, and will propagate slower as the polarization modealigns with the slow-axis 320. For an optical signal propagating withany other state of polarization than purely along the fast- or slow-axis310 or 320, the optical signal is resolved into its principal componentsalong the fast and slow axis, and the two components are temporallydispersed into separate images of the original optical signal.

As a practical matter, it is difficult to make an optical conduit thatdoes not have birefringence because optical conduits are rarelyperfectly manufactured. If a defect of an optical conduit is constantthroughout the length of the conduit, then the resulting PMD is limitedto first-order PMD. However, if the dimensions vary along the length ofan optical conduit, the birefringence of the optical conduit at anypoint can vary accordingly.

As mentioned above, the oscillation rate of the polarization fordifferent frequencies of light in an optical signal can vary with thefrequency of light and, thus, each optical frequency can have adifferent polarization state at any point. Therefore, as amulti-frequency optical signal propagates through an optical conduithaving varying birefringent properties, each optical frequency can beresolved into different proportions of fast and slow components at anyparticular point along the length of the optical conduit, resulting inhigh-order PMD.

FIG. 4 is a diagram of an exemplary optical compensator 120 that cancompensate for first- and higher-order PMD, with higher-ordercompensation including at least accounting for the fixed rate precession(with optical frequency) in Stokes space of the axis of input to outputpolarization rotation, which results from the accumulated effects of thebirefringence of an optical conduit such as a fiber-optic cable. Theoptical compensator 120 has a first polarization rotator 410, acirculator 420, a frequency-dependent polarization state rotator 430, aFaraday rotator 470, a polarization-sensitive optical splitter/combiner480, a fixed mirror 490 and an adjustable mirror 492. Thefrequency-dependent polarization state rotator 430 further has secondand third polarization rotators 440 and 460 and an interferometer 450with a first interferometer splitter/combiner 442, a secondinterferometer splitter/combiner 462, a fixed path 452 and a variablepath 454 with an adjustable mirror 456. The first polarization rotator410 is connected to the circulator 420 via optical conduit 412, thecirculator 420 is connected to the frequency-dependent polarizationstate rotator 430 via optical conduit 422, the frequency-dependentrotator 430 is coupled to the Faraday rotator 470 via optical conduit432, and the Faraday rotator 470 is coupled to thepolarization-sensitive optical splitter/combiner 480 via optical conduit472. The polarization-sensitive optical splitter/combiner 480 is coupledto the fixed mirror 490 via conduit 484 and to the adjustable mirror 492via conduit 482.

The exemplary optical compensator 120 takes advantage of the fact that,within a limited bandwidth of optical frequencies, the rotation axisdefined by the transmission matrix of an optical conduit tends toperform precession at a nearly constant rate. By discounting thediffering precession rates of the various frequency components of anoptical signal, a higher-order PMD compensator such as the opticalcompensator 120 of FIG. 4 can be described by a Jones matrix given byequation (1) below:

$\begin{matrix}{{M(\omega)} = {{R(\theta)}{{R\left( {\omega\; K} \right)}\begin{bmatrix}{\exp\left( {{\mathbb{i}}\;\omega\;{\tau/2}} \right)} & 0 \\0 & {\exp\left( {{- {\mathbb{i}}}\;\omega\;{\tau/2}} \right)}\end{bmatrix}}{R^{- 1}\left( {\omega\; K} \right)}}} & (1)\end{matrix}$where ω denotes the frequency deviation from the central angularfrequency of the optical signal, R denotes an operator which is aunitary Jones matrix whose effect is equivalent to rotation in Stokesspace and R(ωK) denotes a polarization rotation that varies as afunction of frequency ω. The argument of the operator R is athree-dimensional Stokes vector whose orientation is the axis ofrotation and whose magnitude is the rotation angle. Variable τ is thedifferential group delay for the first-order PMD compensator and can becontrolled by the first optical delay associated with the variablemirror 492. The magnitude of the three-dimensional vector K, or K, isthe precession rate of the rotation axis defined by M, and can becontrolled by a second optical delay associated with the variable mirror456. R(θ) denotes a frequency-independent polarization rotation of theoptical signal that is incident to the design of the optical compensator120.

In operation, the first polarization rotator 410 performs the functionR(θ) in equation (1), which is the equivalent of performing afrequency-independent rotation in Stokes space, the group delay of the2-by-2 Jones matrix in equation (1) is implemented using the Faradayrotator 470, beam splitter/combiner 480 and mirrors 490 and 492 and thefunctions R(ωK) and R⁻¹(ωK), which are the equivalent of performingfrequency-dependent rotations in Stokes space, are implemented using theinterferometer 450 and the second and third polarization rotators 440and 460. While the exemplary compensator 120 performs both rotationsR(ωK) and R⁻¹(ωK) using a single set of devices 440, 450 and 460, itshould be appreciated that rotations R(ωK) and R⁻¹(ωK) can beimplemented using separate sets of interferometers and polarizationrotators.

In operation, the optical signal is received by the first polarizationrotator 410 via the optical conduit 112. The first polarization rotator410 then rotates the polarization angle of the optical signal in afrequency-independent fashion R(θ) and provides the rotated opticalsignal to the circulator 420 via the conduit 412. The circulator 420receives the optical signal from the first polarization rotator 410 androutes the signal to the second polarization rotator 440 of thefrequency-dependent polarization state rotator 430 via the conduit 422.

The circulator 420 of the exemplary optical compensator 120 can be anyof a number of known or later developed species of optical circulatorscapable of routing signals entering from the conduit 412 to the conduit422 and routing signals entering from the conduit 412 to the conduit 422without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention.

The frequency-dependent polarization state rotator 430 then performs afrequency-dependent rotation R(ωK) as the optical signal propagates fromthe second polarization rotator 440 through the interferometer 450 andto the third polarization rotator 460. The optical signal is thenprovided to the Faraday rotator 470 via the conduit 432.

The second and third polarization rotators 440 and 460 of the exemplaryoptical compensator 120 can perform complementary frequency-independentrotations. For example, if the second polarization rotator 440 is set torotate the polarization vector in Stokes space by angle θ_(K) aroundsome axis, the third polarization rotator 460 can be set to rotate thepolarization vector of the optical signal by angle −θ_(K) around thesame axis.

The first, second and third polarization rotators 410, 440 and 460 ofthe exemplary optical compensator 120 are adjustable polarizationcontrollers capable of rotating the polarization state of an opticalsignal. Examples of polarization rotators include fiber squeezers, acombination of λ/2 and λ/4 optical delay components, optical fiber loopbased Lefevre polarization controllers, Faraday rotators, Babinet-Soleilcompensators. However, it should be appreciated that the polarizationrotators 410, 440 and 460 can be any device capable of rotating thepolarization state of an optical signal without departing from thespirit and scope of the present invention.

The interferometer 450 of the exemplary optical compensator 120 may be aMach-Zehnder interferometer with an adjustable mirror capable of causingdelay K. However, the interferometer 450 can also be any device capablethat can receive an optical signal, split the optical signal intomultiple images and cause the optical signal images to adjustablyinterfere with each other without departing from the spirit and scope ofthe present invention.

The Faraday rotator 470 receives the optical signal, performs a π/2frequency-independent polarization state rotation around the circularaxis in Stokes space on the optical signal, then provides the rotatedoptical signal to the polarization-sensitive optical splitter/combiner480 via conduit 472. The Faraday rotator 470 of the exemplary opticalcompensator 120 is any device performing a π/2 rotation around thecircular axis in Stokes space and for which the direction of rotation isidentical for two counter-propagating beams. The Faraday rotator 470 canalso be any device capable of rotating the polarization mode of anoptical signal, including an adjustable polarization rotator such as thepolarization controllers of devices 410, 440 and 460. Alternatively, theFaraday rotator 470 can any other known or later developed devicecapable of rotating the polarization angle of an optical signal withoutdeparting from the spirit and scope of the present invention.

The polarization-sensitive optical splitter/combiner 480 splits theoptical signal into orthogonal components, directs the slow componentsof the optical signal to the fixed mirror 490 via conduit 484 anddirects the fast components of the optical signal to the adjustablemirror 492 via conduit 482. In operation, the first polarizationcontroller 410 can be adjusted such that the splitter/combiner 480provides slower optical components to the fixed mirror 490 and fasteroptical components to the adjustable mirror 492. Thepolarization-sensitive optical splitter/combiner 480, as well as theinterferometer splitter/combiners 442 and 462, of the exemplary opticalcompensator 120 can be any known or later developed device capable ofsplitting an optical signal as a function of the polarization angles ofthe different components of the optical signal without departing fromthe spirit and scope of the present invention.

The slow and fast optical components are reflected from mirrors 490 and492 respectively, recombined in the optical splitter/combiner 480 andredirected back to the Faraday rotator 470. The fixed mirror 490reflects an optical signal received from the splitter/combiner 480 backto the splitter/combiner 480 along a constant path. The adjustablemirror 492 also reflects an optical signal received from thesplitter/combiner 480 back to the splitter/combiner 480; however, theadjustable mirror 492 can be adjusted such that the path between thesplitter/combiner 480 and the adjustable mirror 492 is a differentlength than the path between the splitter/combiner 480 and the fixedmirror 490. The resulting effect is to perform a group delay τ on thesignals traversing the longer path with respect to the signalstraversing the shorter path.

In various exemplary embodiments, as discussed above, the faster opticalcomponents can be directed to the adjustable mirror 492. By adjustingthe delay τ/2 of the adjustable mirror 492, the total additional groupdelay τ caused by the longer path length can reduce the time dispersionbetween the slow and fast optical components. In other exemplaryembodiments, it should be appreciated that the splitter/combiner 480 andmirrors 490 and 492 can also be operated in an opposite way, where thefast component is directed to the fixed mirror 490, the slow componentis directed to adjustable mirror 492 and the value of t is madenegative.

It should further be appreciated that the mirrors 490 and 492 of theexemplary optical compensator 120 can be any known or later developeddevice that can reflect a polarized optical signal without departingfrom the spirit and scope of the present invention.

As the optical signal propagates back through the Faraday rotator 470,the optical signal undergoes a second π/2 polarization rotation aroundthe circular axis and the shifted optical signal is provided back to thethird polarization rotator 460 via conduit 432. As the optical signalpropagates from the third polarization rotator 460 to the interferometer450 and back to the second polarization rotator 440, thefrequency-dependent polarization state rotator 430 performs a secondfrequency-dependent rotation R⁻¹(ωK) on the optical signal. The secondpolarization rotator 440 then provides the signal to the circulator 420,which routes the optical signal to the conduit 122.

FIG. 5 depicts a flowchart outlining an exemplary method forcompensating optical signals having first- and higher-order PMDaccording to the present invention. The operation starts in step 500 andcontinues to step 510 where an optical signal is received. Next, in step520, a frequency-independent rotation R(θ) of the optical signal isperformed. While the exemplary technique uses an adjustable polarizationcontroller, it should be appreciated that the polarization angle of theoptical signal can be rotated using any device capable of performing afrequency-independent polarization angle rotation of the optical signalwithout departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention.The process continues to step 530.

In step 530, a first frequency-dependent rotation of the polarizationangle of the optical signal R(ωK) is performed. While the exemplarytechnique uses two adjustable polarization controllers in conjunctionwith an interferometer to perform the frequency-dependent rotation, itshould be appreciated that any device capable of performing afrequency-dependent rotation of the polarization angle of an opticalsignal can be used without departing from the spirit and scope of thepresent invention. The process continues to step 540.

In step 540, a group delay function is performed, effectively removingthe first-order PMD of the optical signal. While the exemplaryfirst-order compensation technique uses a fixed angle polarization anglerotator such as a Faraday rotator, a phase-sensitive beam splitter and aplurality of mirrors, it should be appreciated that any device orcombination of devices that can receive an optical signal havingfirst-order PMD, perform a group delay function or otherwise compensatefor the first-order PMD and then provide the compensated signal toanother device can be used without departing from the spirit and scopeof the present invention. The process continues to step 550.

In step 550, a second frequency-dependent rotation of the polarizationangle of the optical signal R⁻¹(ωK) is performed. The exemplary secondfrequency-dependent rotation uses the same components used in step 530but uses the components in an opposite order and direction of step 530.However, it should be appreciated that the second frequency-dependentrotation R⁻¹(ωK) can be performed by other components or some subset ofthe components used in step 530 without departing from the spirit andscope of the present invention. Next, in step 560, the compensatedoptical signal is exported and the process continues to step 570 wherethe operation stops.

FIG. 6 is a flow chart outlining a method for adjusting the opticalcompensator 120 of FIG. 4. The optical compensator 120 has a delay τ anda first polarization device that can compensate for first-order PMD ofan optical signal and a delay K associated with an interferometer and asecond and third polarization rotation device that can adjust thefrequency-dependent rotations R(ωK) and R⁻¹(ωK).

The operation starts in step 600 and continues to step 610 where theinterferometer delay K is set to zero and the second and thirdpolarization rotation devices are set to complimentary angles θ and −θ.By setting delay K to zero and the polarization rotation devicesaccordingly, the frequency-dependent transform R(ωK) is reduced toR(ωK)=I, with I being the identity operator, thus causing thefrequency-dependent transform to pass signals unaffected. Next, in step620, a group delay that can compensate for first-order PMD is adjustedby manipulating the first polarization rotator and delay τ. Adjustmentcontinues until the first-order PMD of the optical signal issubstantially removed.

It should be appreciated that it can be advantageous to de-couple theprocess of removing first-order PMD and high-order PMD, i.e., subsequentadjustments directed to compensating for high-order PMD will not requirerevisiting either of steps 610 and 620. Accordingly, in variousexemplary embodiments, the process of removing high-order PMD can becomede-coupled from the process of removing first-order PMD by strategicallyadjusting the various delays and polarization rotation devices. Forexample, de-coupling first-order and high-order PMD can be accomplishedby fine-tuning delay K while simultaneously monitoring the polarizationat the input and output of the frequency-dependent transform R(ωK)stage. The operation continues to step 630.

In step 630, second-order, or higher-order, PMD compensation is adjustedby manipulating the second and third polarization rotators and delay K.In the exemplary method, the second and third polarization rotators canbe set to rotate the polarization angle of an optical signal at oppositeangles θ_(K) and −θ_(K). The effect of the combination of the second andthird polarization controllers used in conjunction with theinterferometer is to cause light passing in one direction from thesecond polarization controller to the interferometer then to the thirdpolarization controller to have a transformation R(ωK) and also cause anoptical signal propagating in the reverse direction from the thirdpolarization rotator through the interferometer to the secondpolarization rotator to have a transformation R⁻¹(ωK). Adjustmentcontinues until the second-order PMD is substantially removed from theoptical signal and control continues to step 640 where the operationstops.

It should be understood that each of the components shown in FIG. 4 canbe implemented as portions of a larger suitably structured device.Alternatively, each of the components shown in FIG. 4 can be implementedas physically distinct components or discrete elements.

Furthermore, various components of the optical compensator 120 can berearranged and combined without departing from the spirit and scope ofthe present invention. For example, the circulator 420 can precede thefirst polarization rotator 410. For this case, the optical compensator420 causes an extra frequency-independent phase shift according toequation (2):M′(ω)=M(ω)R(θ)  (2)where R(θ) is the additional polarization angle shift incurred as theoptical signal propagates through the first polarization controller 410a second time and M(ω) is the transform of Equation (1). Additionally,the first and second polarization rotator 410 and 440 can be combinedinto a single element. While the combination of rotator 410 and 440 cancause a loss in a degree of freedom and make compensation moredifficult, the same transform as expressed in equation (2) can still beperformed. It should be understood that any combination of hardware andsoftware capable of implementing the flowchart of FIG. 5 or equations(1) or (2) can be used without departing from the spirit and scope ofthe present invention.

While this invention has been described in conjunction with the specificembodiments thereof, it is evident that many alternatives,modifications, and variations will be apparent to those skilled in theart. Accordingly, preferred embodiments of the invention as set forthherein are intended to be illustrated and not limiting. Thus, there arechanges that may be made without departing from the spirit and scope ofthe invention.

1. An optical device that compensates for polarization mode dispersion(PMD) of an optical signal, comprising: a first polarization staterotator that rotates the polarization angle of the optical signal in afrequency-independent manner; a first-order PMD compensator thatreceives the rotated signal and compensates for first-order PMD; and asecond polarization state rotator that receives the first-ordercompensated signal and inversely rotates the polarization angle of thefirst-order compensated signal in a frequency-dependent manner tocompensate for higher-order PMD, wherein the first polarization staterotator performs a transform R(θ) and the second polarization staterotator performs a transform R⁻¹(ωK), wherein R is an operator whoseeffect is equivalent to rotation in Stokes space, ω denotes thedeviation from a central angular frequency of the optical signal and Krelates to a variable delay.
 2. A method for compensating forpolarization mode dispersion (PMD) of an optical signal, comprising:first rotating the polarization angle of the optical signal in afrequency-independent manner to generate an intermediate optical signal,wherein the first rotating causes a first transformation R(θ) of theoptical signal; compensating the intermediate optical signal forfirst-order PMD; and second rotating the polarization angle of theintermediate optical signal in a frequency-dependent manner tocompensate for higher-order PMD, wherein the second rotating causes asecond transformation R⁻¹(ωK), wherein ω denotes the deviation from acentral angular frequency of the optical signal and K relates to avariable delay, wherein R is an operator whose effect is equivalent torotation in Stokes space.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein performingthe first rotating comprises at least performing a polarization staterotation of an angle θ about an axis defined by a frequency-independentpolarization controllers, causing an interference of the optical signaland the second rotating comprises performing a second polarization staterotation by an angle −θ around the same axis.